Iran is facing worsening environmental emergencies—chronic water shortages, collapsing aquifers, empty reservoirs and pervasive air pollution—that critics say expose decades of mismanagement and are fueling public anger at the theocratic government.
The country is now in its sixth consecutive year of a severe drought. President Masoud Pezeshkian in November suggested relocating the capital from Tehran toward the Persian Gulf, a proposal opponents say dodges underlying problems rather than solving them.
While Iran’s climate is naturally arid, researchers point to policy failures, corruption and short-term decision-making as primary drivers of ecological decline. Climate change has amplified these trends, substantially raising drought risk and exacerbating resource stress.
Agriculture consumes almost all of Iran’s water. A state policy of food self-sufficiency, combined with limited access to global markets, encouraged widespread drilling into groundwater. The number of wells is roughly double what it was two decades ago; studies show more than 300 of 609 aquifers are now in critical condition. Around 70% of water demand is concentrated in areas where groundwater is being overdrawn.
Those practices have drained underground reserves, left orchards and fields ruined and undermined the country’s ability to reliably produce staples such as wheat, barley, rice and corn. Over-pumping prevents natural recharge and has caused land subsidence over large areas—an estimated 3.5% of Iran has sunk, damaging roads, buildings and pipelines. Meanwhile, a decades-long program to build hundreds of dams has often produced underfilled reservoirs; more than half the dam capacity added in the past 20 years remains largely empty. Many projects altered river flows, increased evaporation and were sited or promoted for economic or political reasons rather than environmental feasibility.
Northwest Lake Urmia, once the Middle East’s largest salt lake, has nearly dried after numerous upstream dams and diversions. Roughly one-third of Iranians now live in water-stressed regions. Falling agricultural yields and rising food prices have pushed many rural residents into cities, adding to urban water demand and social strain. Water shortages have sparked recurring protests—most notably the 2021 Uprising of the Thirsty—and recent demonstrations have used chants such as water, electricity, life as basic rights. Those protests have often met violent repression and mass arrests.
Air pollution compounds the crisis. Nearly 80% of Iranians live in urban areas with poor air quality. Iranian authorities estimated almost 60,000 deaths from toxic air in 2024, about 161 people per day. Tehran frequently ranks among the world’s most polluted cities; schools and offices sometimes close when smog peaks.
Vehicles are the principal source of pollution in Tehran. Low-quality fuels, aging car fleets and a protected domestic market mean manufacturers face weak incentives to produce cleaner vehicles. Winter power generation using mazut, a heavy petroleum residue, adds toxic emissions. Exposed lake and riverbeds create dust that winds distribute widely. Despite Tehran’s surrounding mountains, experts say governance failures and policy choices are the main causes of the capital’s dirty air.
Practical remedies exist but implementing them has proved politically and technically difficult. Large infrastructure ideas—such as desalination pipelines from the Persian Gulf—have been floated, but critics argue such projects can bypass the deeper need for systemic reform. Specialists instead advocate long-term measures: a crash program to capture and reuse municipal wastewater; shifting agriculture away from water-intensive crops; repairing and restoring qanats, the ancient underground channels that once provided sustainable groundwater delivery; and introducing stricter vehicle and fuel standards.
Iran also has significant renewable potential. About two-thirds of the country enjoy roughly 300 sunny days a year, yet renewables supplied less than 4% of electricity in a 2022 IRENA report. Despite vast oil and gas reserves, the country routinely faces blackouts and fuel shortages because of underinvestment, aging infrastructure and a political economy built on patronage. Experts say Iran could harness solar and wind resources at scale if leaders pursued coherent economic planning and long-term investment rather than short-term extraction and politically driven projects.
Researchers and activists say climate change worsens existing vulnerabilities, but the root causes are governance, planning failures and corruption. Without concerted political will to carry out structural reforms—from integrated water management and agricultural policy changes to cleaner fuels, vehicle standards and renewable investment—Iran’s environmental crises are likely to deepen, with mounting social, economic and political consequences for the country.